Introduction
Although tourism is broadly and rightly criticized for the major role it plays in globalization and the problems associated with this socioeconomic phenomenon, tourism also has the potential to offer equal benefits to the traveler as well as to the destination. The problems associated with tourism stem from an unequal power relationship. Tourists are usually visiting destinations that are weaker in socio economic terms. They demand services and experiences at the lowest possible price. In addition, the money spent by tourists is not equally shared by all the residents of a destination. Operators and other tourism service providers profit from tourism but they are simply a minority and in fact, might not even reside at the destination. On the other hand, destinations are desperate for the economic benefits potentially obtainable through tourism and are willing to sacrifice various ‘social rights’ for revenue. But the benefits of tourism are also worth mentioning. When policymakers and managers pay enough attention to fragile communities and heritage sites, proper planning and design of tourism infrastructure can transform whole economies and improve the general population’s way of life. A large amount of current research, largely at the behest of funding bodies promotes the development and maintenance of a sustainable tourism economy that is environmentally and socially conscientious. In this paper, a theoretical introduction to the current status of international cultural tourism is outlined, and principles of responsible management are offered. In addition, a variety of cases in which the new ‘sustainability and responsibility paradigm’ in tourism has been implemented are presented.
Current Status of International Cultural Tourism
In tourism, it is of the utmost importance that we recognize that the massive tourism industry of today would never exist without the diversity of valuable natural and cultural assets that are found at destinations all over the planet. However, there is the fact that these assets are seen by some as resources to be developed; and by others as the sacred elements of society itself that need to be protected. And so there is a struggle between some that would exploit nature and culture as resources and those who would protect them by preventing or by strictly limiting their accessibility. These resources are inevitably commoditized for the sake of tourism, as a contribution to national identity and economy. The problem lies in the fact that as the scale of tourism increases, the delicate balance between profitability and degradation becomes ever more urgent and controversial. In this paper the concern that interests concerned with exploitation versus those concerned with preservation is addressed, and the possibility that they are not entirely mutually hostile viewpoints is raised. After all, in terms of the sustainability discourse, the golden ratio of protection and profitability is the goal, not the unequivocal victory of one over the other.
The word sustainability means that the consumption of a particular cultural resource will not outpace its ability to regenerate itself. But the notion of sustainability originated from natural resources management and ecology. Culture is a bit different because it is associated with lived social experience, not just buildings and old things that are found in museums. The total immersion in culture is a human condition that prevents us from seeing clearly or objectively. Therefore we need the proper understanding of sustainability as an ideal and as a symptom of a global economy rather than a quantifiable or achievable condition.
The main problem associated with the development and promotion of destination culture is its representation. As soon as we begin transforming places into destinations for the sake of tourism we risk the Disneyfication of the same – reducing ‘identity’ to ‘brand’ for the sake of the tourist. Worse yet, by seeking a model for tourism development from other destinations, places that are in actuality, competitors, host countries risk selling themselves out as a stereotype of ‘culture for sale’. No matter the medium, be it websites, videos, television commercials or documentaries or promotional brochures and travel guidebooks, tourism promotion is carried out always at the risk of the real being reduced to its representation. Even when developers, opinion leaders and tourists mean well, the haphazard establishment of a destination image can lead to gross misunderstandings between tourist and resident, and even among residents themselves. There is a fear, especially in fragile communities, that an over dependency on tourism can lead to residents simulating a culture expected of them by the tourist, at the cost of their own identity. In the end, both interests are cheated: the resident of his identity, and the tourist of her experience.
We no longer travel to places, but instead, we arrive at destinations. Places become hubs, or centers and in tourism, there are fewer and fewer peripheries. In another surprising development, fewer and fewer countries are being referred to as geopolitical locations. The
The explosive growth of tourism is unprecedented in the history of humankind on this earth. Never before have so many people moved around the planet in such numbers. And in addition, never before were so many people suspended in the atmosphere above the earth – in jet airplanes – at the same time. When we think of mass invasions, we are usually thinking about war. But the peaceful invasion, tourism, of all parts of the world at the same time is an even bigger event. The UNTWO reports that 2006 was another record year for world tourism, with 36 million more arrivals than estimated for 2005 – a total of 842,000,000 tourists traveling in 2006 (http://www.world-tourism.org/). It seems that nothing can stop this unprecedented movement. Contagious epidemics, natural disasters, war and terrorism all combined are not enough to discourage the traveler from seeing the world, or taking care of (global) business as usual.
When one considers
In thinking about the numbers there is, it seems, not enough consideration of the significance of tourism as a global social phenomenon. Most references to tourism are still embedded in an industrial way of thinking. Intelligence on tourism is largely focused on destination promotion, the management of sites and other elements of the infrastructure, or on tourists’ perceptions and satisfaction. Much less research has been performed concerning the ways in which the current status of world tourism has developed. It has become a huge global event because of access. This is an under-valued insight because the common reaction would be that it is simply the effect of international air travel. But it is exactly that – the effect – whereas the cause is policy. Prior to a major expansion in democratic rights in the
As a result of this unprecedented demand for travel, in combination with the equally explosive surplus of accessibility, tourism has become a singular event that for all respects has taken on a life of its own. Now, all national and local heritage sites, artifacts and even culturally unique ways of life have been re-identified as the resources for tourism. Their previous roles as the components of national identity, or as historically significant items, or even as the unconscious, or emic, ways of the quotidian have been replaced. Heritage sites such as the Angkor Wat in
Theoretical Implications
The promotion of destinations for tourism is big business, but in light of the issues just discussed, it might be superfluous. Instead, more attention should be paid to the social and environmental effects of the phenomenon. It is not an easy subject to broach, however, as many stakeholders are still caught in the thrall of the economic promise tourism offers. The very representations of a toured destination have certain empirically identifiable effects on the place and its people. Representations enable a destination to construct the ideal image for attracting the tourist and controlling his behavior during the visit. Representations instruct the tourist on what to see, what to experience and what goods and services she should buy. The most common forms of destination image media include tourist brochures, guidebooks, postcards and websites. To a lesser extent, souvenirs also contribute to a destination promotion strategy. They are structured around the most iconic cultural and environmental resources of a destination. These representations in turn affect the quality of experiences that tourists will expect and actually largely determine tourist experiences.
In terms of tourism, the automatic tendency of the global economic system as it exists is to essentialize (mythologize) destination culture, leading to the implementation of a universal model for tourism where all places become different “on the level of content but the same on the level of form, or text” (Scott, 2004, p. 213). Touristic representations serve as the material from which destination imagery are formed, and reflect the necessary cultural gap that must present ‘difference’ in a coherent manner while catering to the guests’ sense of universal order, reality and the familiar. It is accomplished by changing places into destinations and by metabolizing culture into experience. Representations are inevitably placed between two distinct and irresolvable realities that are, nevertheless, in total collaboration. They run together out of necessity, but never completely overcome a creeping sense of contrivance (Debord, 1995).
Research concerning touristic representations requires an evaluation of the fundamental ontology that drives tourism policy, one inherited directly from the project of colonialism and anthropology (Fabian, 1983). This is an inevitable step, since cultural representation in tourism creates an irreconcilable gap between the functional interests of resource management and social interests of autonomy and subjectivities (Hendry, 2005).
Cultural tourism and its representations is regarded by some as a panacea for various indigenous or rural social and economic problems (Herbert-Cheshire & Higgins, 2004), whereas others are critical of its negative social effects (Hollinshead, 1992). In either case, the voice comes from experts, policymakers or other opinion leaders who claim authority based on credentials or based on information gathered from the touristic milieu. Often, data is gathered via opinion polls that focus on the tourist and her experiences rather than the local resident. In addition, pressing social and economic issues usually are the catalyst for research and policy, and a purely functional apprehension of a local community as a resource could be obscuring alternative perspectives.
Especially in smaller communities, a flood of representations and economic imperatives can operationally silence residents’ subjectivities regarding their own social or cultural identity. They become buried beneath touristic representations oriented toward making sense only in the context of outside social, political and economic realities (Laxon, 1991). But resident attitudes are generally appraised only in the interest of tourism planning (Stoffle & Evans 1990) or development (Smith & Krannich, 2000). Local subjectivities remain unknown because they are recruited, ostensibly, only at the moment of tourism policy implementation, or revision (Herbert-Cheshire & Higgins, 2004).
Sustainability and Responsible Management
A general approach to sustainability and responsible management is necessary in order to avoid the pitfalls of representation, which include stereotyping, alienation, and on an economic level, the unfair distribution of resources. Talking points for economic, social and environmental responsibility can begin from the points distilled from the tourism management research literature, below.
Guiding Principles for Economic Responsibility
· Assess economic impacts before developing tourism and exercise preference for those forms of development that benefit local communities and minimize negative impacts on local livelihoods (for example through loss of access to resources), recognizing that tourism may not always be the most appropriate form of local economic development.
· Maximize local economic benefits by increasing linkages and reducing leakages, by ensuring that communities are involved in, and benefit from, tourism. Wherever possible use tourism to assist in poverty reduction by adopting pro-poor strategies.
· Develop quality products that reflect, complement, and enhance the destination.
· Market tourism in ways which reflect the natural, cultural and social integrity of the destination, and which encourage appropriate forms of tourism.
· Adopt equitable business practices, pay and charge fair prices, and build partnerships in ways in which risk is minimized and shared, and recruit and employ staff recognizing international labor standards.
· Provide appropriate and sufficient support to small, medium and micro enterprises to ensure tourism-related enterprises thrive and are sustainable.
Guiding Principles for Social Responsibility
· Actively involve the local community in planning and decision-making and provide capacity building to make this a reality.
· Assess social impacts throughout the life cycle of the operation – including the planning and design phases of projects - in order to minimize negative impacts and maximize positive ones.
· Endeavor to make tourism an inclusive social experience and to ensure that there is access for all, in particular vulnerable and disadvantaged communities and individuals.
· Combat the sexual exploitation of human beings, particularly the exploitation of children.
· Be sensitive to the host culture, maintaining and encouraging social and cultural diversity.
· Endeavor to ensure that tourism contributes to improvements in health and education.
Guiding Principles for Environmental Responsibility
· Assess environmental impacts throughout the life cycle of tourist establishments and operations – including the planning and design phase - and ensure that negative impacts are reduced to the minimum and maximizing positive ones.
· Use resources sustainably, and reduce waste and over-consumption.
· Manage natural diversity sustainably, and where appropriate restore it; and consider the volume and type of tourism that the environment can support, and respect the integrity of vulnerable ecosystems and protected areas.
· Promote education and awareness for sustainable development – for all stakeholders.
· Raise the capacity of all stakeholders and ensure that best practice is followed, for this purpose consult with environmental and conservation experts.
Additional concerns related to ethnic or socio-economic disparity are found in this table containing action points that any responsible tourism manager should be sensitive to:
| Action Points for Managers | Performance Checklist |
| Power: Observe relationships with others as democratic, equal and collaborative. Hierarchy: Avoid using ethnic or professional status to push for certain preferred decisions. Intervention: Differentiate actions as representative or intermediary. Motives (Community): Identify the source of motives that drive actions. What interests are implicitly promoted? Representation: Beware of how we think ‘the other’ “should” be. Culture: Interact realistically without nostalgia of Culture as pure, or ideal, or historical. Trust: Nourish trust in relationships. Distribution of Goods: How does the manager participate in the distribution of capital, skills and expertise? Labor: How do you participate in the structure of labor? | Power: How do participants use power in interactions? Hierarchy: How do participants influence decisions? Intervention: How do participants unconsciously serve County, Academic, or Village interests? Motives: How do motives influence or drive the actions of participants? Representation: How do participants mutually represent ‘the other’, and how are these representations prefigured by the collective myths of ethnic stereotyping. Culture: How do participants use the nostalgia of culture as pure, ideal or historical to shape the present? Trust: How do participants interact with trust? Distribution of Goods: How does the distribution of capital, skills and expertise occur? Labor: How is the structure of labor defined, negotiated and/or managed? |
Responsible tourism must equally and continually recognize economic, social and environmental considerations. In today’s tourism, global attention goes to tourism initiatives that combine aspects of community development, revenue reinvestment, cultural heritage and conservation. Responsible tourism generates greater economic benefits for local people and enhances the well-being of host communities, improves working conditions and access to the industry. Responsible tourism involves local people in decisions that affect their lives and life chances. It makes positive contributions to the conservation of natural and cultural heritage, to the maintenance of the world's diversity. Responsible tourism provides more enjoyable experiences for tourists through more meaningful connections with local people, and a greater understanding of local cultural, social and environmental issues. Responsible tourism provides access for physically challenged people; and is culturally sensitive, engenders respect between tourists and hosts, and builds local pride and confidence. Other prescriptive outlines for sustainable tourism might look like this:
Principles for Sustainable Tourism (Adapted from Jefferson & Lickorish, “Marketing Tourism”)
Ø The environment has an intrinsic value that outweighs its value as a tourism asset. Enjoyment by future generations and long term survival are no longer to be ignored
Ø Tourism should be recognized as a positive activity that has the potential to benefit the community and the place as well as the visitor
Ø The relationship between tourism and the environment must be managed so that it can be sustainable for the long term (win-win solutions must be sought)
Ø Tourism activities and developments should respect the scales, nature and character of the place in which they are sited
Ø In any location, harmony must be sought between the needs of the visitor, the place and the host community
Ø In a dynamic world some change is inevitable and change can often be beneficial. Adaptation to change, however, should not be at the expense of any of these principles outlined here
Ø The tourism industry, local authorities and environmental agencies all have a duty to respect the above principles and to work together to achieve their practical realization.
Local Cultural Consciousness: Practices for Tourism Management
Ø Avoid the unrealistic social values of expatriate managers
Ø Objectify local flavor and feeling into everyday operations
Ø Acknowledge employee diversity (bargaining skills with employees)
Ø Language constraints
Ø Employ joint or traditional decision making
Ø Recognize cultural sensibilities of time
Ø Focus on relationships rather than the big sale
Ø Utilize items, materials and products to build local pride
Ø Promote indigenous training and career opportunities for local employees
Ø Observe a holistic outlook that captures the inclusive energy and universal rhythm of a given local community
These largely theoretical and prescriptive approaches to the responsible management of tourism destination sustainability are good in the sense that they are wide-ranging and comprehensive. However, they lack the solidity of real-world cases that illustrate how various principles are operationalized to varying degrees of success. In the next section, some of these cases are reviewed.
Sustainable Global Tourism Policies
There are any number of governmental, intergovernmental and global organizations today that are interested in promoting the partnership of sustainable tourism and climate change. They are concerned with many facets of the huge enterprise of global tourism, from transportation, energy, the environment, image and even human rights. The list is too long for any paper of this length, but a few key organizations should be briefly mentioned. Foundational policy action related to tourism and sustainability has been implemented in the form of the ICOMOS Charter (ICOMOS, 2002), thanks in part to the efforts of UNESCO and the UNWTO. In addition, the UN Earth Summit: Agenda 21 Green Globe Certification (http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/documents/agenda21/index.htm) is largely recognized, as is Agenda 21, the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, and the Statement of principles for the Sustainable Management of Forests that were adopted by more than 178 Governments at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 3 to 14 June 1992. There are local governments that serve as examples in their sensibility and destination-based responsibility.
· Consumes a wide range of tourism products and services
· Seeks out new experiences where they can engage and interact with natural, social and cultural environments
· Is keen to share these experiences with others
· Respects the environment, cultural and societal values of others
· Is considered a leader by his/her peers
· Uses technology to enhance their lives
· Values authentic products/experiences.
Marketing Goals: To market and manage a world-class visitor experience
· Wider adoption of distinctive branding through use of the
· A greater focus on cultural tourism opportunities and products to differentiate
· A closer alignment between destination marketing and destination management.
Other Goals: 1) Creating maximum benefit for New Zealanders from the tourism industry (the tourism industry consists of small businesses in
Finally, the UNWTO http://www.world-tourism.org/members/affiliate/eng/pdf/REPORT_destination.pdf offers a comprehensive definition of a sustainable tourism destination that should guide other organizations and their policy: “A sustainable tourism destination is: Community based (local ownership and control of resources); Links conservation with enterprise; Holistic planning and management strategies; Supportive national and regional policies; Environmentally appropriate infrastructure development; Re-invest tourism resources into conservation, education and community; Equitable distribution of tourism benefits and opportunities; Implements partnerships and equality.”
Report on Global Climate Change and Tourism (UNEP, UNWTO & WMO)
This report on climate change and tourism was developed through a partnership between United Nations Environmental Program, United Nations World Tourism Organization, and the World Meteorological Organization. The final report can be found at the UNWTO website (http://www.unwto.org/media/news/en/pdf/davos_rep_advan_summ_26_09.pdf). The report was presented at the Davos, Switzerland Second International Conference on Climate Change and Tourism, 1-3 October, 2007. In the report, ‘new realities of tourism in an era of global climate change’ are discussed, and include In the report, ‘compelling evidence’ regarding the increasing pace of climate change is referenced, and the fact that “hot extremes, heat waves and heavy precipitation events will continue to become more frequent”. Environmental and economic risks are interconnected and this is especially important for tourism, because it is a very environmentally and climactically sensitive economic sector, “similar to agriculture, insurance, energy, and transportation”. On the other hand, the tourism sector is also a significant contributor to climate change, especially in terms of GHG, or green house gasses.
There are a number of climate change impacts at tourism destinations. Climate change will affect destination choice, length of stay, and tourist spending. The natural environment and its resources are the major basis for a destination’s attractiveness. Specific emerging events that threaten the environment include: infectious diseases, wildfires, insect or water-borne pests, and extreme events such as cyclones or typhoons. Social risks related to climate change include the decrease of discretionary wealth per capita, and security. UNWTO Secretary General Francesco Frangialli is quoted as declaring that, “It is vital for tourism destinations to anticipate the coming changes and to draw their consequences, starting now.”
UNWTO,
The role of the UNWTO (World Tourism Organization) cannot be overstated. They are concerned equally with climate change and the global tourism phenomenon. Its critical role in the development of the Climate Change and Tourism Report has already been discussed, but in addition, UNWTO Secretary General Francesco Frangialli has also stated that, “Climate change as well as poverty alleviation will remain central issues for the world community. Tourism is an important element in both”. The UNWTO Asia Newsletter, since its inception in 2005, has regularly reported on the UN ST-EP Foundation (Sustainable Tourism – Eliminating Poverty) – and all 13 issues of the newsletter can be accessed at: http://www.unwto.org/asia/news/en/newsle.php?op=2&subop=2. ST-EP was launched in collaboration with UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development), and “focuses on longstanding work to encourage sustainable tourism – social, economic and ecological – which specifically alleviates poverty, bringing development and jobs to people living on less than a dollar a day. It will target the world’s poorest countries, particularly in
ICLEI Local Governments for Sustainability (http://www.iclei.org)
ICLEI (Local Governments for Sustainability) is an important inter-governmental and global organization that is highly concerned about climate change and strongly recognizes the importance of local action. It was established in 1990 in NY with support from UN and IULA (currently, UCLG) at the inaugural conference, World Congress of Local Governments for a Sustainable Future at the UN, NY. The ICLEI World Secretariat has been hosted by the City of Toronto since 1991 and organizationally consists of: 8 Regional Secretariats/Offices (North America, Latin America, Oceania, South Asia, Southeast Asia, Africa, Europe), 5 Country Offices (Canada, US, Mexico, Korea, Japan) and the ITC International Training Center. The Vision is based on: local governments, sustainable development, and a worldwide presence. The
Other Notable Global Organizations
In addition to these powerful global organizations there are countless other groups that share the common concerns of global tourism and climate change protection. As previously mentioned in this paper, the interests of tourism are inseparable from those concerning environmental sustainability. To illustrate the relationship, a few notable global organizations are listed here:
UCLG - United Cities and Local Governments (http://www.cities-localgovernments.org):
To be the united voice and world advocate of democratic local self-government, promoting its values, objectives and interests, through cooperation between local governments, and within the wider international community.
UNEP – United Nations Environment Programme (http://www.unep.org):
To provide leadership and encourage partnership in caring for the environment by inspiring, informing, and enabling nations and peoples to improve their quality of life without compromising that of future generations.
TIES – The International Ecotourism Society (www.ecotourism.org):
To be the global source of knowledge and advocacy uniting communities, conservation, and sustainable travel. And to promotes responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the well-being of local people.
PATA – Pacific Asia Travel Association (http://www.pata.org):
To enhance the growth, value and quality of Asia Pacific travel and tourism for the benefit of its membership.
WTTC – World Travel and Tourism Council (http://www.wttc.travel):
To raise awareness of tourism and travel as one of the largest global industries and to develop private and public partnerships at local and regional levels.
ISISA – International Small Islands Studies Association (www.geol.utas.edu.au/isisa/about.html):
To advance the study of islands by encouraging free discussion on small island related matters such as islandness, smallness, insularity, resource management, the environment and the culture and nature of island life.
IIPT – International Institute for Peace through Tourism (http://www.iipt.org/):
To foster and facilitate tourism initiatives which contribute to international understanding and cooperation, an improved quality of environment, the preservation of heritage, and through these initiatives, helping to bring about a peaceful and sustainable world.
IUCN – International Union for Conservation of Nature (http://cms.iucn.org/index.cfm):
To influence, encourage and assist societies throughout the world to conserve the integrity and diversity of nature and to ensure that any use of natural resources is equitable and ecologically sustainable.
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